The concept of citizenship was not born as a fully formed theory; rather, it has undergone continuous development linked to the evolution of social structures and institutions that govern territories inhabited by human groups. Therefore, citizenship is a relative relationship that evolves gradually. The concept of citizenship has been closely associated with democracy and human rights, which have developed from the rights to vote and run for office to encompass broader human rights.
According to the encyclopedia, citizenship is a relationship between an individual and a state, as defined by law, which outlines rights and duties. More specifically, it refers to a person living permanently in a specific territory, holding its nationality, with rights granted and obligations imposed. When we speak of the relationship between the individual and the state, we mean a direct relationship between free and independent individuals and a state in which individuals are equal under and before the law.
This description has not been experienced in Lebanon since the establishment of the Lebanese entity in 1920. Alongside the two sectarian groups that inhabited Mount Lebanon, other sectarian groups from the four districts annexed to Mount Lebanon were incorporated. These groups include individuals belonging to tribes and sects, each with its own history, myths, and narratives separate from the others. This means that the Lebanese entity was not the product of a collective struggle by citizens seeking to build a unified state on a defined land, but rather a space where non-unified groups coexist, with loyalties tied to structures that predate the idea of a unified state. Nationality forms the basis of the state’s commitment to citizenship, and its conditions vary from one country to another.
In Lebanon, a person acquires nationality if their father is Lebanese, according to the nationality law issued in 1925. This law prevents Lebanese women from granting nationality to their families if they marry a foreigner, thereby undermining the principle of equality among individuals, which is essential for building citizenship. Many families suffer as a result of this unjust law, which has had negative consequences on the lives of more than seventy thousand people living in Lebanon.
Citizenship and Belonging
If citizenship expresses the relationship between an individual and a state, granting rights and imposing duties, then belonging is fundamentally different. Belonging is a conceptual idea tied to awareness and choice; a person is free to choose a religion, an idea, or a cause, but not the land on which they were born. Therefore, citizenship does not necessarily imply belonging to the state whose nationality one holds.
The relationship between citizenship and belonging has multiple dimensions. Sometimes it carries a positive aspect, particularly when belonging takes on a humanistic and progressive dimension, such as advocating for human rights. At other times, it may have a negative dimension that conflicts with citizenship, especially when an individual adopts ideas that exclude others and assume ownership of absolute truth imposed on others. This is evident in various regions of Lebanon, where certain groups attempt to impose their culture and authority not only on their own constituencies but also on those around them.
Citizenship is not a ready-made formula achieved through constitutional or legal texts, nor is it a grant from a ruler or authority. Rather, it is a goal linked to human action on the ground, through struggle and practice to attain rights, equality with others, integration into the nation, access to public resources, and participation in public affairs.
Pillars of Citizenship
When discussing citizenship, we highlight the rights that must be secured in order to be actual citizens: civil, political, social, economic, and cultural rights.
Civil rights include freedom of expression, both spoken and written, and the right to personal freedom that does not violate the law or infringe upon the freedoms of others. These rights are often lacking, particularly in various southern regions, where many citizens face repressive policies that prevent them from expressing their opinions. A clear example occurred during the October 17 uprising, when many citizens were subjected to violence, threats, and coercive practices forcing them to change previously expressed views. This can be attributed to the absence of democratic state institutions in daily life. Civil rights also include freedom of movement, the right to choose one’s place of residence, equality before the law, and the right to life, identity, and belonging.
These rights are absent in several areas, where local authorities prevent Lebanese individuals from other sects from owning property, thereby restricting their right to choose where to live—a right guaranteed by the constitution. In June 2025, media outlets reported an announcement by a southern municipality prohibiting property ownership and residence for others within its geographical boundaries, contradicting genuine citizenship.
Political rights include the right to join political parties and associations, participate in pressure groups for change, run for office, vote, and engage in political activities such as protests and sit-ins.
In this domain, political forces dominate their areas of influence, suppressing opposition, preventing reform efforts, and blocking activities that challenge their policies or expose corruption.
Social rights include the right to a dignified standard of living, social security, quality healthcare, essential services, and a clean environment.
Political forces impose control over their areas of influence, preventing any opposition
or attempts at change.
In reality, citizens and residents in various southern regions suffer from deteriorating social conditions, especially after the 2024 war. The state has failed to provide the foundations for a dignified life, and there is an absence of strategic planning for sustainable development. Instead, institutions often reduce citizens to individuals seeking fragmented social assistance, while even welfare programs are influenced by political patronage.
In the healthcare sector, public hospitals have become inaccessible except to those affiliated with political elites, amid widespread corruption. Their administrative boards have turned into arenas of political quota-sharing for material and political gain.
As for environmental rights, instead of proper waste management facilities, sorting and treatment centers have turned into dumps and incineration sites, contributing to rising pollution-related diseases. Economic rights include access to fair employment opportunities, the right to establish unions, and balanced development.
In this field, there has been a clear absence of productive economic institutions over the past 25 years. Investment opportunities are often obstructed, forcing investors to withdraw not only from the south but from Lebanon entirely. Attempts to establish agricultural and industrial projects have failed due to political pressures, while professional unions have become tools of political interests.
Cultural rights include access to quality education and relevant specializations aligned with labor market needs. However, education has increasingly become commercialized, particularly with the decline of public education and the inability of many to afford private schooling. Some institutions have also promoted ideologies that undermine equality and citizenship, in the absence of unified history and civic education curricula.
Citizenship is a dynamic and multifaceted concept whose elements develop unevenly. One pillar may advance faster than others before they realign. In Lebanon, particularly in the south, this concept is increasingly deteriorating due to the weakening of state institutions and the rise of group-based structures that position themselves as alternatives to the state.
In the south, this complex concept of citizenship is undergoing further erosion due to the collapse of state institutions.
Citizenship also requires a productive economic base. It cannot be achieved in a rent-based economy or one dependent on non-productive sectors, where sectarian and factional sentiments tend to grow.
Productive sectors in the south have declined, particularly since 1992. Agriculture, including tobacco and citrus farming, has weakened, and industrial activity has nearly disappeared.
The struggle for citizenship requires economic development that revitalizes productive sectors, alongside modern democratic state institutions. There is no citizenship without democracy, no development without human rights, and no fully homogeneous society. Citizenship must therefore include minority rights, especially in a country composed of diverse groups.
Dimensions of Citizenship
The struggle for citizenship requires consideration of four key dimensions:
- The personal dimension: related to individual behavior and personal struggle for citizenship, often suppressed in areas where individuals are expected to conform to dominant group norms.
- The private dimension: related to family, religious, or professional affiliations, which must not conflict with the broader public interest governed by law, diversity, and dialogue.
- The participatory dimension: enabling citizens to advocate for change, exercise accountability, and engage in oversight—yet often restricted.
These dimensions require functioning state and civil society institutions, which Lebanon lacks due to outdated social structures and weak governance.
A realistic assessment of the southern regions shows that building citizenship is difficult but not impossible. It requires both individual effort and the construction of state institutions that not only enact laws but enforce them. This raises the fundamental question:
Are we truly citizens in Lebanon? And how does each individual begin the struggle for citizenship?
